How effective was the civil rights movement in abolishing racial discrimination for african americans in the USA between 1955-1968

Rochelle Fernando

To what extent was the Civil Rights Movement methods effective in abolishing racial discrimination and achieving equality between 1950 and 1965?

The American Civil Rights Movement, reform group in the United States aimed at abolishing racial discrimination against African Americans. This essay will discuss the phases of the movement between 1954 and 1968 and the extent to which they were effective in each phase of the movement in abolishing racial discrimination and gaining equality. They went through phases such as protest from civil disobedience, associated with Martin Luther King, to the use of violence, associated with Malcolm X and legislative reform. Thus there are three overlapping areas of discussion; legislative reform, peaceful protest and violent protest. The essay will attempt to measure the effectiveness of the Movement in each of those areas of protest. “All men are equal”, is what the Civil Rights Movement wanted to achieve because at present African Americans were in fact seen as highly inferior to the white community. Something which had been fought for even before the 1950’s where Truman believed in “equality of treatment and opportunity for all those who serve in out country’s defense”. I will investigate how The Civil Rights Movement challenged segregation and discrimination through these strategies and how effective they were in achieving their goal. The extent to which they are effective by using these methods can be measured in its ability to coming closer to abolishing racial discrimination.

Many believed the movement was very effective in abolishing racial discrimination through legislative reforms. An example being the federal but also legal precedent case, Brown VS Topeka in 1954 that had the involvement of NAACP. It “found state imposed segregation of public schools in violation of the U.S constitution”. This case saw segregation in public schools made unconstitutional where the Court ordered segregation to be phased out over time, “with all deliberate speed”. Going against the 1896 Plessey VS Ferguson’s case which set a “separate but equal” ruling where African Americans were to be kept separate as long as they got “equal provision”. The extent to which some may say this was effective would be immense as it ended a form of segregation which had been active and bought the Civil Rights Movement a step closer to gaining equality and abolishing racial discrimination.  After the 1954 Brown VS Topeka desegregation decision, Little Rock school board officials decided to begin desegregation of Central High School in September 1957, where nine black students were allowed to attend what had previously been an all white school. It seemed to be highly effective because of the involvement of President Eisenhower who ordered this desegregation but also attracted and received attention from the media which portrayed a positive look upon the Civil Rights Movement. This was effective as it emphasized desegregation in schools and had the support of a powerful white American which could cause other white American supporters of civil rights. Desegregation also took place in 1956 in the Montgomery Bus Boycott, where Rosa Parks, who was arrested in December 1955 for refusing to give up her seat to a white person, set off a train of events that generated a drive for the civil rights movement. With the support of most of Montgomery’s 50,000 African Americans, the boycott lasted for 381 days until segregating African-Americans and whites on public buses was lifted. Ninety percent of African Americans in Montgomery took part in the boycotts, which reduced bus revenue by 80%. A federal court ordered Montgomery’s buses desegregated in November 1956, and the boycott ended in triumph. So by the end of 1956 the Civil Rights Movement had managed to remove two forms of segregation in about three years by using only their first phase, legislative reform. So the extent to which this was effective many would argue would be vast.

However others would say the effectiveness of these legal reforms in abolishing racial discrimination and gaining equality was limited because even though Brown VS Topeka outlawed segregation, many schools defined the law by threatening African American students because laws would not change opinions. More importantly the Little Rock case saw “conditions…Pretty rough” for the nine students and “treatment of the children has been getting steadily worse” as they experienced things such as “kicking, spitting and general abuse” something which could not be put an end to even though in 1954 in Brown VS Topeka segregation in school had been ended their treatment was still very poor. So the effect of Brown Vs Topeka can be argued as poor as if it was little rock would not have occurred.  More importantly only one of the Little Rock Nine, Ernest Green, graduated; after the 1957-58 school years was over, the Little Rock school system decided to shut public schools completely rather than be forced to integrate. Other school systems across the South then followed and shut also with “no school will be integrated in Mississippi while I am your Governor”, showing how not only had Little Rock been ineffective but so had Brown VS Topeka which was meant to put an end to this segregation.

Increasingly frustrated by lack of effect of Brown VS Topeka in places like Little Rock, citizens began to reject legal reforms as the tool to bring about desegregation. In defiance, they began to adopt a combined strategy of direct action with nonviolent resistance. Such as the Sit Ins in 1960. It began with four African American students and then increased to 27, then 80 and on the fifth day of the sit in, 300. This protest caused sales to drop and segregation to end. Not only did this end segregation at lunch counters but in the same year in April many started to follow and a total of 78 communities across the south held them. By September 1961 70,000 black and white students used this tactic resulting in 810 towns being desegregated by 1961. This was very effective in its aim because not only did it desegregate making it more racially equal, but publicity was gained which showed non violent African Americans being faced with violent white Americans which would have made some of the white community think about their actions . 1961 saw the Civil Rights movement test their own effectiveness in abolishing racial discrimination, this is where freedom riders were created. They traveled though the southern states testing these new laws. They had been effective as they managed to ensure transport was integrated and were supported by Robert Kennedy. When the new ICC rule took effect on November 1st, passengers were permitted to sit wherever they chose on the bus; “white” and “colored” signs came down in the terminals; separate drinking fountains, toilets, and began serving people regardless of skin color. The Freedom Rides can be seen to have been a highly effective form of peaceful protest as it gained much equality for African Americans through removing much of the desegregation present in a variety of aspects of life. Another protest by civil rights with the same aim was the March on Washington in 1963, led by Martin Luther King. It was evident the effectiveness of the civil rights movement in this event in abolishing racial discrimination had been great as it had the support of 80,00 white Americans and 250,000 demonstrators reflecting that the Civil Rights Movement had the support of white Americans now to help them gain equality in a white dominant country. Same year The Birmingham campaign was focused on the desegregation of Birmingham’s downtown merchants. The campaign used a variety of nonviolent methods of confrontation, including sit-ins, kneel-ins at local churches, and a march to the county building to mark the beginning of a drive to register voters. Its huge attention from Television cameras broadcast to the nation showed scenes of water from fire hoses knocking down schoolchildren and dogs attacking individual demonstrators. There was widespread public outrage that then forced the Kennedy Administration to intervene more forcefully.

However the effectiveness of peaceful protests was compressed as in the case of freedom riders they faced abuse from the KKK and where attacked and arrested in Birmingham and Alabama and Jackson and Mississippi for “breaching the peace” by using “white only” facilities .By the end of summer, more than 300 had been jailed in Mississippi slowing down the civil rights movement. March on Washington saw African Americans being attacked by dogs and horses and in the case of the sit ins many protestors were arrested. Furthermore the Birmingham campaign was faltering because the movement was running out of demonstrators willing to risk arrest or violence and so the extent to which it was effective had limiting components. Some of the success of the Civil Rights Movement can be attributed to the television coverage and not so much their strategies . The taping and broadcasting of the images of civil rights workers, sit-ins, marches and clashes demonstrated the severe and inhumane treatment of African Americans by authorities in the South again building up more determination for African Americans and so this is diminishing the effect of the civil rights movement methods.

At the same time as these peaceful protests, there continued to be legislative reform; the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, that banned discrimination in employment practices and public accommodations and made racial discrimination in public places, such as theatres, restaurants and hotels, illegal. It also required employers to provide equal employment opportunities. The Civil Rights Act also attempted to deal with the problem of African Americans being denied the vote in the Deep South. ; the Voting Rights Act of 1965, this restored and protected voting rights; the Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965, that dramatically opened entry to the U.S. to immigrants other than traditional European groups; and lastly The Civil Rights Act of 1968, that banned discrimination in the sale or rental of housing. Leading to a more racially equal society.

However their efforts were met with fierce opposition; arrests, beatings, shootings, arson, and murder. In addition, employers fired blacks who tried to register and landlords evicted them from their homes. So the efforts made through legislative reform were held back and so limited the effectiveness.

1965 saw the civil rights movement split in two where halves. Where some wanted to continue to follow Martin Luther King’s peaceful methods .Others Malcolm X’, who wanted to segregate and use more violent methods. The effectiveness of these violent protests seemed to have high influence as Malcolm X’ group increased membership to 100,000.

However these violent protest movements seemed to be very ineffective in its efforts to . An example being Black Panthers founded by Newton and Seale. By 1968 they did have 5000 members, but by 1982 they disappeared and had achieved nothing in gaining equality and ending segregation.  

In conclusion the civil rights movement were effective in abolishing racial discrimination and gaining equality for African Americans, however each effect did have limitations making the extent to which it was effective not as great ,but since the 1800’s they had come along way and achieved much. As by 1968 the civil rights movement had achieved unthinkable success in the short period of time. The black population had gained legal equality .The well publicized successes of the movement did however mask a continuing problem of discrimination and poverty in the black population which did still exist limiting the effect of the Civil Rights Movement. racial prejudice in the South had still not been solved. The South was inherently racist. Throughout the civil rights movements most states had actively opposed desegregation. Governor Faubus of Arkansas closed schools rather than integrate them. States found loopholes in the laws and exploited the rights of the states over federal government to continue to discriminate against blacks. This was possible because many of those in positions of authority were racist so the black population had no protection. The KKK was a strong force in the South and violence and intimidation was frequent consequently however many campaigns for voter registration there were by the SNCC when they left the black population would be too scared to make a stand because even though legislation was being put in place minds were not being changed. Kennedy had promised that housing could be solved at the stroke of a president’s pen as the Watts riots proved he had been unsuccessful. Public opinion and the economic system in America could not be changed through legislation. By 1968 the majority of the civil rights legislation was fairly recent it had only been in place a decade or less, on such large issues as race relations it would take time, generations for education legislation to take effect. The new legislation was poorly enforced due to public opinion and often sounded more impressive than it was. By 1968 the Civil Rights movement had to some extent backfired to abolishing racial discrimination, the death of Malcolm X and the establishment of the Black Panthers followed by the death of Martin Luther King led to a far more militant movement. Some of the respect gained for the black population was being eroded. Despite the problems still facing the black population employment had improved as had education. Middle class Black families enjoyed many of the privileges of the white population. Opinions and opportunities were slowly changing as more white americans were getting involved in the civil rights movement, the racial problems that still exist in America show that these problems couldn’t as Kennedy argued be solved at the stroke of a president’s pen it was the people who decide and by 1968, though  the situation had improved, full integration remained a future hope rather than a present reality because though they had become more equal and some racial discrimination had been abolished, it had not been completely removed making the extent to which the Civil Rights Movement was effective not as significant, Although they still had come along way since 1950’s.